I’ve collaborated with many parents of young children who had never heard the term temperament before our time together. While it’s surprising that more pediatricians don’t educate around this topic, it’s completely understandable that parents wouldn’t necessarily come across it on their own. In this article we’ll explore a brief definition and history of temperament, what current research tells us about it, and why this is a critical concept in your everyday life with an infant or young child.
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A Brief History of Temperament
Lets start with a definition. At its essence, temperament refers to a set of individual characteristics and behaviors – thought to be based in biology, genetics, and epigenetics – which remain relatively stable over time, though they are likely somewhat impacted by environment as well. These traits and behaviors shape a person’s emotional, cognitive, and somatic responses across various situations, impacting their social functioning.
Ancient Origins
The earliest references to behavioral categorization can be traced back to Ancient Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamia. However the formal systematization (and written documentation) of different ‘types’ of people and their behaviors emerged around 2500 years ago among Greek and Roman philosophers and physicians. The word ‘temperament’ derives from the Latin temperare, meaning “to mix,” reflecting the thinkers’ desire to describe the blend of biology and behavior accounting for different individuals and the diseases they experienced. This marked a significant departure from the prevailing belief of illness being caused by supernatural forces.2.
The Greeks proposed four different types of people, based on the four “humors” (the different chemical systems that at the time people believed regulated the body and behavior): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Some philosophers also made associations with the four seasons or with the natural elements of fire, earth, air and water1. It was widely thought for over 2000 years that having more of one humor than another determined one’s behavioral characteristics and health; blood (being “sanguine”) made one enthusiastic and social; yellow bile (being “choleric”), ambitious and aggressive; black bile (being “melancholic”), depressed; and phlegm (being “phlegmatic”), reserved and forgetful3.
Modern Use of the Four Humors
Though this framework is no longer dominant, remnants of it persist in some modern thinking, such as in the work of political scientist James D. Barber and business management analyst Robert R. Blake. It also finds prominence in Waldorf schools, where teachers use it to understand children’s predispositions and learning styles.
Current Research
With the advent of modern empiricism, the humors theory fell out of favor, and today’s researchers no longer directly apply it. Nevertheless, there’s an ongoing debate on the exact nature of temperament, with different theories offering distinct perspectives.
One influential figure in this field is Jerome Kagan at Harvard, who defines temperament as “initial biases that are a function of inherited variation in the neurochemistry of the brain.” The contribution for which he is best known is observing that humans tend to group themselves into “inhibited” and “uninhibited” groups. In other words, some children are naturally more shy, timid, or fearful, while others are more social, outgoing, and fearless.
Mary K. Rothbart has also contributed important theory to the area of temperament. She has been interested in the connections between motor capacity and emotional reactivity. Her theory boils down to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, which she notes manifests in the three areas of emotion, activity, and attention.
Finally, a frequently cited temperament theory – and one of my favorites to work – comes from Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess. Thomas and Chess launched the 32 year long New York Longitudinal Study in 1956, following 133 individuals from infancy to adulthood. In their analysis of the data, they identified nine temperament traits, each measured along a spectrum. These traits include Activity, Regularity, Initial Reaction, Adaptability, Intensity, Mood, Distractibility, Persistence-Attention Span, and Sensory Threshold.
They subsequently found that some of these traits tended to ‘cluster’ together, pointing toward the idea that there could be three general types of temperament. These they named “easy,” “difficult” (I prefer ‘spirited’), and “slow-to-warm.” Many modern day practitioners also acknowledge that there are “combination” children who do not fit clearly into one of the three groups suggested by Thomas and Chess.
An addendum on the limitations of of the New York Longitudinal Study. It’s important to note that this study took place with only white, middle class American infants, an unfortunate limitation of many psychological studies. Some researchers since then have worked to build out knowledge on more diverse groups of participants. These studies have yielded some interesting nuances without strongly challenging the results of Thomas, Chess and colleagues. I choose to continue to refer to the 9 temperament traits as functional framework that helps the families I work with begin to think about temperament. But always it’s important to honor parent observation and family culture while doing so.
To Thomas and Chess’ nine traits I like to add a tenth, ‘Emotional Sensitivity.’ Having focused my graduate research on families of highly sensitive children, I note that Elaine Aron’s theory of high sensitivity – entirely separate from Thomas and Chess’ work – more or less captures several of their nine traits (including sensory threshold, initial reaction, and adaptibility). However it is better represented if we add the dimension of sensitivity to emotions in self and others.
Here is a list of the ten temperament traits I find it helpful to work with, with brief definitions:
- Activity – the energy level and amount of movement seen in a child – ranges from energetic to sedentary.
- Regularity – the natural patterns and schedules for biological functions (e.g. sleeping, eating, bathroom) – ranges from predictable to variable.
- Initial Reaction – the reaction a child has to new people and situations – ranges from open to hesitant.
- Adaptability – a child’s ability to adjust to changes – ranges from accommodating to resistant.
- Intensity – the emotional response to events – ranges from exuberant to lethargic.
- Mood – a child’s typical emotional outlook – ranges from positive to negative.
- Distractibility – a child’s ability to focus – ranges from attentive to sidetracked.
- Persistence–Attention Span – a child’s ability to stay with an activity – rnages from immersed to disinterested.
- Sensory Threshold – a child’s reaction to sensory stimuli – ranges from unaffected to irritated.
- Emotional Sensitivity – level of awareness a child has of her own feelings and those of others
Thomas and Chess also applied the term “goodness of fit” to the parent-child relationship. Understanding a parent’s temperament as well as their child’s can help explain where there’s going to be natural parent-child harmony and where the two temperaments may rub up against one another in challenging ways.
Theories can only attempt to understand and frame human experience, so there are limits to their capacity to capture individual realities. Still, you may find it useful to explore one or more of these theories, either on your own or with professional support.
Temperament & Your Child
So now that you have all of that background information, what are you supposed to do with it?
Having a shared framework can serve as a starting point for comprehending a child’s unique traits and tailoring strategies to meet their needs. As Thich Nhat Hanh said, “Understanding is love’s other’s name. If you don’t understand, you can’t love.” I truly believe that working to understand a child’s experience is the foundation for loving them well – which if you’re here reading this post, that’s all you’re trying to do anyway!
Understanding is love’s other name. If you don’t understand, you can’t love.
Thich Nhat Hanh
Some examples of using the above framework: knowing that a child is naturally “slow to warm” can inform the way you prepare him for new situations. You may decide to have some extra preparatory conversations or read books related to the upcoming situation. Or seeing that a child’s intensity is high, you may know she needs that extra time on the playground every day. These little things can add up in big ways. Because through these actions you are nourishing and resourcing your child’s nervous system.
Though I’m always very careful about labeling children and trying not to box them in, I cannot stress enough that having some knowledge of behavioral predispositions is vital for understanding and personalizing strategies for them.
If you’d like to gain a more comprehensive picture of where you child falls on these spectrums – as well as receive some tips for how to care for different temperament types – you can download a free copy of my Temperament Assessment & Tip Sheet here:
Always keep in mind that, regardless of where your child falls on these spectrums, it likely falls within the range of normal. Stay attuned to developmental norms to identify potential delays, bearing in mind the wide range of normal for hitting developmental milestones. When in doubt, consult with your pediatrician to differentiate between temperament-related behaviors and potential underlying issues.
Understanding your child’s unique traits, as well as your own temperament, equips you to empathize with your child and strategize effectively in daily life. You are the expert on your child, and I encourage you to explore research and theory independently. I also recognize the intense demands on you as a parent, and I’m here to offer additional support when needed. Don’t hesitate to reach out for support in synthesizing child development information and integrating it into your family life.
1: Kagan J. Galen’s prophecy. Boulder, CO: Westview; 1994.
2: Lagay, F. The Legacy of Humoral Medicine. Virtual Mentor. 2002; 4(7):206-208. doi: 10.1001/virtualmentor.2002.4.7.mhst1-0207.
3: Jouanna, Jacques (2012). “The Legacy of the Hippocratic Treatise The Nature of Man: The Theory of the Four Humours”. Greek Medicine from Hippocrates to Galen. Brill. p. 342. doi:10.1163/9789004232549_017. ISBN 978-9004232549.
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